<h2><SPAN name="Chapter_XII" id="Chapter_XII"></SPAN><span class="smcap">Chapter XII.</span></h2>
<h2><span class="smcap">The Death of Cyrus.</span></h2>
<p class="center">B.C. 530</p>
<div class="sidenote">Progress of Cyrus's conquests.</div>
<p class="n"><span style="float:left;font-size:50px;line-height:32px;padding-top:2px;padding-bottom:1px;">A</span><span style="margin-left:0%;">fter</span> having made the conquest of the Babylonian empire, Cyrus found
himself the sovereign of nearly all of Asia, so far as it was then
known. Beyond his dominions there lay, on every side, according to the
opinions which then prevailed, vast tracts of uninhabitable territory,
desolate and impassable. These wildernesses were rendered unfit for
man, sometimes by excessive heat, sometimes by excessive cold,
sometimes from being parched by perpetual drought, which produced bare
and desolate deserts, and sometimes by incessant rains, which drenched
the country and filled it with morasses and fens. On the north was the
great Caspian Sea, then almost wholly unexplored, and extending, as
the ancients believed, to the Polar Ocean.</p>
<div class="sidenote">The northern countries.<br/>The Scythians.<br/>Their warlike character.</div>
<p>On the west side of the Caspian Sea were the Caucasian Mountains,
which were supposed, in those days, to be the highest on the globe. In
the neighborhood of these mountains there was a <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_271" id="Page_271">[Pg 271]</SPAN></span>country, inhabited by
a wild and half-savage people, who were called Scythians. This was, in
fact, a sort of generic term, which was applied, in those days, to
almost all the aboriginal tribes beyond the confines of civilization.
The Scythians, however, if such they can properly be called, who lived
on the borders of the Caspian Sea, were not wholly uncivilized. They
possessed many of those mechanical arts which are the first to be
matured among warlike nations. They had no iron or steel, but they
were accustomed to work other metals, particularly gold and brass.
They tipped their spears and javelins with brass, and made brazen
plates for defensive armor, both for themselves and for their horses.
They made, also, many ornaments and decorations of gold. These they
attached to their helmets, their belts, and their banners. They were
very formidable in war, being, like all other northern nations,
perfectly desperate and reckless in battle. They were excellent
horsemen, and had an abundance of horses with which to exercise their
skill; so that their armies consisted, like those of the Cossacks of
modern times, of great bodies of cavalry.</p>
<p>The various campaigns and conquests by <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_272" id="Page_272">[Pg 272]</SPAN></span>which Cyrus obtained
possession of his extended dominions occupied an interval of about
thirty years. It was near the close of this interval, when he was, in
fact, advancing toward a late period of life, that he formed the plan
of penetrating into these northern regions, with a view of adding them
also to his domains.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Cyrus's sons.<br/>His queen.</div>
<p>He had two sons, Cambyses and Smerdis. His wife is said to have been a
daughter of Astyages, and that he married her soon after his conquest
of the kingdom of Media, in order to reconcile the Medians more easily
to his sway, by making a Median princess their queen. Among the
western nations of Europe such a marriage would be abhorred, Astyages
having been Cyrus's grandfather; but among the Orientals, in those
days, alliances of this nature were not uncommon. It would seem that
this queen was not living at the time that the events occurred which
are to be related in this chapter. Her sons had grown up to maturity,
and were now princes of great distinction.</p>
<div class="sidenote">The Massagetæ.<br/>Queen Tomyris.<br/>Spargapizes.</div>
<p>One of the Scythian or northern nations to which we have referred were
called the Massagetæ. They formed a very extensive and powerful realm.
They were governed, at this time, by a queen named Tomyris. She was a
<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_273" id="Page_273">[Pg 273]</SPAN></span>widow, past middle life. She had a son named Spargapizes, who had,
like the sons of Cyrus, attained maturity, and was the heir to the
throne. Spargapizes was, moreover, the commander-in-chief of the
armies of the queen.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Selfish views of Cyrus.</div>
<p>The first plan which Cyrus formed for the annexation of the realm of
the Massagetæ to his own dominions was by a matrimonial alliance. He
accordingly raised an army and commenced a movement toward the north,
sending, at the same time, embassadors before him into the country of
the Massagetæ, with offers of marriage to the queen. The queen knew
very well that it was her dominions, and not herself, that constituted
the great attraction for Cyrus, and, besides, she was of an age when
ambition is a stronger passion than love. She refused the offers, and
sent back word to Cyrus forbidding his approach.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Customs of the savages.</div>
<p>Cyrus, however, continued to move on. The boundary between his
dominions and those of the queen was at the River Araxes, a stream
flowing from west to east, through the central parts of Asia, toward
the Caspian Sea. As Cyrus advanced, he found the country growing more
and more wild and desolate. It was inhabited by savage tribes, who
lived on roots and <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_274" id="Page_274">[Pg 274]</SPAN></span>herbs, and who were elevated very little, in any
respect, above the wild beasts that roamed in the forests around them.
They had one very singular custom, according to Herodotus. It seems
that there was a plant which grew among them, that bore a fruit, whose
fumes, when it was roasting on a fire, had an exhilarating effect,
like that produced by wine. These savages, therefore, Herodotus says,
were accustomed to assemble around a fire, in their convivial
festivities, and to throw some of this fruit in the midst of it. The
fumes emitted by the fruit would soon begin to intoxicate the whole
circle, when they would throw on more fruit, and become more and more
excited, until, at length, they would jump up, and dance about, and
sing, in a state of complete inebriation.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Cyrus arrives at the Araxes.<br/>Difficulties of crossing the river.</div>
<p>Among such savages as these, and through the forests and wildernesses
in which they lived, Cyrus advanced till he reached the Araxes. Here,
after considering, for some time, by what means he could best pass the
river, he determined to build a floating bridge, by means of boats and
rafts obtained from the natives on the banks, or built for the
purpose. It would be obviously much easier to transport the army by
using these boats and rafts to <i>float</i> the men <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_275" id="Page_275">[Pg 275]</SPAN></span>across, instead of
constructing a bridge with them; but this would not have been safe,
for the transportation of the army by such a means would be gradual
and slow; and if the enemy were lurking in the neighborhood, and
should make an attack upon them in the midst of the operation, while a
part of the army were upon one bank and a part upon the other, and
another portion still, perhaps, in boats upon the stream, the defeat
and destruction of the whole would be almost inevitable. Cyrus planned
the formation of the bridge, therefore, as a means of transporting his
army in a body, and of landing them on the opposite bank in solid
columns, which could be formed into order of battle without any delay.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Embassage from Tomyris.<br/>Warning of Tomyris.</div>
<p>While Cyrus was engaged in the work of constructing the bridge,
embassadors appeared, who said that they had been sent from Tomyris.
She had commissioned them, they said, to warn Cyrus to desist entirely
from his designs upon her kingdom, and to return to his own. This
would be the wisest course, too, Tomyris said, for himself, and she
counseled him, for his own welfare, to follow it. He could not foresee
the result, if he should invade her dominions and encounter her
armies. Fortune had favored <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_276" id="Page_276">[Pg 276]</SPAN></span>him thus far, it was true, but fortune
might change, and he might find himself, before he was aware, at the
end of his victories. Still, she said, she had no expectation that he
would be disposed to listen to this warning and advice, and, on her
part, she had no objection to his persevering in his invasion. She did
not fear him. He need not put himself to the expense and trouble of
building a bridge across the Araxes. She would agree to withdraw all
her forces three days' march into her own country, so that he might
cross the river safely and at his leisure, and she would await him at
the place where she should have encamped; or, if he preferred it, she
would cross the river and meet him on his own side. In that case, he
must retire three days' march from the river, so as to afford her the
same opportunity to make the passage undisturbed which she had offered
him. She would then come over and march on to attack him. She gave
Cyrus his option which branch of this alternative to choose.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Cyrus calls a council of war.<br/>Opinion of the officers.</div>
<p>Cyrus called a council of war to consider the question. He laid the
case before his officers and generals, and asked for their opinion.
They were unanimously agreed that it would be best for him to accede
to the last of the two proposals <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_277" id="Page_277">[Pg 277]</SPAN></span>made to him, viz., to draw back
three days' journey toward his own dominions, and wait for Tomyris to
come and attack him there.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Dissent of Crœsus.</div>
<p>There was, however, one person present at this consultation, though
not regularly a member of the council, who gave Cyrus different
advice. This was Crœsus, the fallen king of Lydia. Ever since the
time of his captivity, he had been retained in the camp and in the
household of Cyrus, and had often accompanied him in his expeditions
and campaigns. Though a captive, he seems to have been a friend; at
least, the most friendly relations appeared to subsist between him and
his conqueror; and he often figures in history as a wise and honest
counselor to Cyrus, in the various emergencies in which he was placed.
He was present on this occasion, and he dissented from the opinion
which was expressed by the officers of the army.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Speech of Crœsus.</div>
<p>"I ought to apologize, perhaps," said he, "for presuming to offer any
counsel, captive as I am; but I have derived, in the school of
calamity and misfortune in which I have been taught, some advantages
for learning wisdom which you have never enjoyed. It seems to me that
it will be much better for you not to <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_278" id="Page_278">[Pg 278]</SPAN></span>fall back, but to advance and
attack Tomyris in her own dominions; for, if you retire in this
manner, in the first place, the act itself is discreditable to you: it
is a retreat. Then, if, in the battle that follows, Tomyris conquers
you, she is already advanced three days' march into your dominions,
and she may go on, and, before you can take measures for raising
another army, make herself mistress of your empire. On the other hand,
if, in the battle, you conquer her, you will be then six days' march
back of the position which you would occupy if you were to advance
now.</p>
<div class="sidenote">His advice to Cyrus.</div>
<p>"I will propose," continued Crœsus, "the following plan: Cross the
river according to Tomyris's offer, and advance the three days'
journey into her country. Leave a small part of your force there, with
a great abundance of your most valuable baggage and supplies—luxuries
of all kinds, and rich wines, and such articles as the enemy will most
value as plunder. Then fall back with the main body of your army
toward the river again, in a secret manner, and encamp in an
ambuscade. The enemy will attack your advanced detachment. They will
conquer them. They will seize the stores and supplies, and will
suppose that your whole army <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_279" id="Page_279">[Pg 279]</SPAN></span>is vanquished. They will fall upon the
plunder in disorder, and the discipline of their army will be
overthrown. They will go to feasting upon the provisions and to
drinking the wines, and then, when they are in the midst of their
festivities and revelry, you can come back suddenly with the real
strength of your army, and wholly overwhelm them."</p>
<div class="sidenote">Cyrus adopts the plan of Crœsus.<br/>His reply to Tomyris.</div>
<p>Cyrus determined to adopt the plan which Crœsus thus recommended.
He accordingly gave answer to the embassadors of Tomyris that he would
accede to the first of her proposals. If she would draw back from the
river three days' march, he would cross it with his army as soon as
practicable, and then come forward and attack her. The embassadors
received this message, and departed to deliver it to their queen. She
was faithful to her agreement, and drew her forces back to the place
proposed, and left them there, encamped under the command of her son.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Forebodings of Cyrus.</div>
<p>Cyrus seems to have felt some forebodings in respect to the manner in
which this expedition was to end. He was advanced in life, and not now
as well able as he once was to endure the privations and hardships of
such campaigns. Then, the incursion which he was to make was <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_280" id="Page_280">[Pg 280]</SPAN></span>into a
remote, and wild, and dangerous country and he could not but be aware
that he might never return. Perhaps he may have had some compunctions
of conscience, too, at thus wantonly disturbing the peace and invading
the territories of an innocent neighbor, and his mind may have been
the less at ease on that account. At any rate, he resolved to settle
the affairs of his government before he set out, in order to secure
both the tranquillity of the country while he should be absent, and
the regular transmission of his power to his descendants in case he
should never return.</p>
<div class="sidenote">He appoints Cambyses regent.</div>
<p>Accordingly, in a very formal manner, and in the presence of all his
army, he delegated his power to Cambyses, his son, constituting him
regent of the realm during his absence. He committed Crœsus to his
son's special care, charging him to pay him every attention and honor.
It was arranged that these persons, as well as a considerable portion
of the army, and a large number of attendants that had followed the
camp thus far, were not to accompany the expedition across the river,
but were to remain behind and return to the capital. These
arrangements being all thus finally made, Cyrus took leave of his son
and of Crœsus, crossed the <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_281" id="Page_281">[Pg 281]</SPAN></span>river with that part of the army which
was to proceed, and commenced his march.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Hystaspes.<br/>His son Darius.<br/>Cyrus's dream.</div>
<p>The uneasiness and anxiety which Cyrus seems to have felt in respect
to his future fate on this memorable march affected even his dreams.
It seems that there was among the officers of his army a certain
general named Hystaspes. He had a son named Darius, then a youth of
about twenty years of age, who had been left at home, in Persia, when
the army marched, not being old enough to accompany them. Cyrus
dreamed, one night, immediately after crossing the river, that he saw
this young Darius with wings on his shoulders, that extended, the one
over Asia and the other over Europe, thus overshadowing the world.
When Cyrus awoke and reflected upon his dream, it seemed to him to
portend that Darius might be aspiring to the government of his empire.
He considered it a warning intended to put him on his guard.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Hystaspes's commission.</div>
<p>When he awoke in the morning, he sent for Hystaspes, and related to
him his dream. "I am satisfied," said he, "that it denotes that your
son is forming ambitious and treasonable designs. Do you, therefore,
return home, and arrest him in this fatal course. Secure him, <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_282" id="Page_282">[Pg 282]</SPAN></span>and let
him be ready to give me an account of his conduct when I shall
return."</p>
<p>Hystaspes, having received this commission, left the army and
returned. The name of this Hystaspes acquired a historical immortality
in a very singular way, that is, by being always used as a part of the
appellation by which to designate his distinguished son. In after
years Darius did attain to a very extended power. He became Darius the
Great. As, however, there were several other Persian monarchs called
Darius, some of whom were nearly as great as this the first of the
name, the usage was gradually established of calling him Darius
Hystaspes; and thus the name of the father has become familiar to all
mankind, simply as a consequence and pendant to the celebrity of the
son.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Cyrus marches into the queen's country.</div>
<p>After sending off Hystaspes, Cyrus went on. He followed, in all
respects, the plan of Crœsus. He marched his army into the country
of Tomyris, and advanced until he reached the point agreed upon. Here
he stationed a feeble portion of his army, with great stores of
provisions and wines, and abundance of such articles as would be
prized by the barbarians as booty. He then drew back with the main
body of his army toward the Araxes, and concealed his <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_283" id="Page_283">[Pg 283]</SPAN></span>forces in a
hidden encampment. The result was as Crœsus had anticipated. The
body which he had left was attacked by the troops of Tomyris, and
effectually routed. The provisions and stores fell into the hands of
the victors. They gave themselves up to the most unbounded joy, and
their whole camp was soon a universal scene of rioting and excess.
Even the commander, Spargapizes, Tomyris's son, became intoxicated
with the wine.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Success of the stratagem.<br/>Spargapizes taken prisoner.</div>
<p>While things were in this state, the main body of the army of Cyrus
returned suddenly and unexpectedly, and fell upon their now helpless
enemies with a force which entirely overwhelmed them. The booty was
recovered, large numbers of the enemy were slain, and others were
taken prisoners. Spargapizes himself was captured; his hands were
bound; he was taken into Cyrus's camp, and closely guarded.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Tomyris's concern for her son's safety.</div>
<p>The result of this stratagem, triumphantly successful as it was, would
have settled the contest, and made Cyrus master of the whole realm, if
as he, at the time, supposed was the case, the main body of Tomyris's
forces had been engaged in this battle; but it seems that Tomyris had
learned, by reconnoiterers and spies, how large a force there was in
Cyrus's <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_284" id="Page_284">[Pg 284]</SPAN></span>camp, and had only sent a detachment of her own troops to
attack them, not judging it necessary to call out the whole. Two
thirds of her army remained still uninjured. With this large force she
would undoubtedly have advanced without any delay to attack Cyrus
again, were it not for her maternal concern for the safety of her son.
He was in Cyrus's power, a helpless captive, and she did not know to
what cruelties he would be exposed if Cyrus were to be exasperated
against her. While her heart, therefore, was burning with resentment
and anger, and with an almost uncontrollable thirst for revenge, her
hand was restrained. She kept back her army, and sent to Cyrus a
conciliatory message.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Her conciliatory message.</div>
<p>She said to Cyrus that he had no cause to be specially elated at his
victory; that it was only one third of her forces that had been
engaged, and that with the remainder she held him completely in her
power. She urged him, therefore, to be satisfied with the injury which
he had already inflicted upon her by destroying one third of her army,
and to liberate her son, retire from her dominions, and leave her in
peace. If he would do so, she would not molest him in his departure;
but if he would not, she <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_285" id="Page_285">[Pg 285]</SPAN></span>swore by the sun, the great god which she
and her countrymen adored, that, insatiable as he was for blood, she
would give it to him till he had his fill.</p>
<p>Of course Cyrus was not to be frightened by such threats as these. He
refused to deliver up the captive prince, or to withdraw from the
country, and both parties began to prepare again for war.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Mortification of Spargapizes.</div>
<p>Spargapizes was intoxicated when he was taken, and was unconscious of
the calamity which had befallen him. When at length he awoke from his
stupor, and learned the full extent of his misfortune, and of the
indelible disgrace which he had incurred, he was overwhelmed with
astonishment, disappointment, and shame. The more he reflected upon
his condition, the more hopeless it seemed. Even if his life were to
be spared, and if he were to recover his liberty, he never could
recover his honor. The ignominy of such a defeat and such a captivity,
he knew well, must be indelible.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Cyrus gives him liberty within the camp.<br/>Death of Spargapizes.</div>
<p>He begged Cyrus to loosen his bonds and allow him personal liberty
within the camp. Cyrus, pitying, perhaps, his misfortunes, and the
deep dejection and distress which they occasioned, acceded to this
request. Spargapizes watched <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_286" id="Page_286">[Pg 286]</SPAN></span>an opportunity to seize a weapon when he
was not observed by his guards, and killed himself.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Grief and rage of Tomyris.</div>
<p>His mother Tomyris, when she heard of his fate, was frantic with grief
and rage. She considered Cyrus as the wanton destroyer of the peace of
her kingdom and the murderer of her son, and she had now no longer any
reason for restraining her thirst for revenge. She immediately began
to concentrate her forces, and to summon all the additional troops
that she could obtain from every part of her kingdom. Cyrus, too,
began in earnest to strengthen his lines, and to prepare for the great
final struggle.</p>
<div class="sidenote">The great battle.<br/>Cyrus is defeated and slain.</div>
<p>At length the armies approached each other, and the battle began. The
attack was commenced by the archers on either side, who shot showers
of arrows at their opponents as they were advancing. When the arrows
were spent, the men fought hand to hand, with spears, and javelins,
and swords. The Persians fought desperately, for they fought for their
lives. They were in the heart of an enemy's country, with a broad
river behind them to cut off their retreat, and they were contending
with a wild and savage foe, whose natural barbarity was rendered still
more ferocious and terrible than <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_287" id="Page_287">[Pg 287]</SPAN></span>ever by the exasperation which they
felt, in sympathy with their injured queen. For a long time it was
wholly uncertain which side would win the day. The advantage, here and
there along the lines, was in some places on one side, and in some
places on the other; but, though overpowered and beaten, the several
bands, whether of Persians or Scythians, would neither retreat nor
surrender, but the survivors, when their comrades had fallen,
continued to fight on till they were all slain. It was evident, at
last, that the Scythians were gaining the day. When night came on, the
Persian army was found to be almost wholly destroyed; the remnant
dispersed. When all was over, the Scythians, in exploring the field,
found the dead body of Cyrus among the other ghastly and mutilated
remains which covered the ground. They took it up with a ferocious and
exulting joy, and carried it to Tomyris.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Tomyris's treatment of Cyrus's body.</div>
<p>Tomyris treated it with every possible indignity. She cut and
mutilated the lifeless form; as if it could still feel the injuries
inflicted by her insane revenge. "Miserable wretch!" said she; "though
I am in the end your conqueror, you have ruined my peace and happiness
forever. You have murdered my son. <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_288" id="Page_288">[Pg 288]</SPAN></span>But I promised you your fill of
blood, and you shall have it." So saying, she filled a can with
Persian blood, obtained, probably, by the execution of her captives,
and, cutting off the head of her victim from the body, she plunged it
in, exclaiming, "Drink there, insatiable monster, till your murderous
thirst is satisfied."</p>
<p>This was the end of Cyrus. Cambyses, his son, whom he had appointed
regent during his absence, succeeded quietly to the government of his
vast dominions.</p>
<div class="sidenote">Reflections.<br/>Hard-heartedness, selfishness, and cruelty characterize the
ambitious.</div>
<p>In reflecting on this melancholy termination of this great conqueror's
history, our minds naturally revert to the scenes of his childhood,
and we wonder that so amiable, and gentle, and generous a boy should
become so selfish, and unfeeling, and overbearing as a man. But such
are the natural and inevitable effects of ambition and an inordinate
love of power. The history of a conqueror is always a tragical and
melancholy tale. He begins life with an exhibition of great and noble
qualities, which awaken in us, who read his history, the same
admiration that was felt for him, personally, by his friends and
countrymen while he lived, and on which the vast ascendency which he
acquired over the minds of his fellow-men, and which led <span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_289" id="Page_289">[Pg 289]</SPAN></span>to his power
and fame, was, in a great measure, founded. On the other hand, he ends
life neglected, hated, and abhorred. His ambition has been gratified,
but the gratification has brought with it no substantial peace or
happiness; on the contrary, it has filled his soul with uneasiness,
discontent, suspiciousness, and misery. The histories of heroes would
be far less painful in the perusal if we could reverse this moral
change of character, so as to have the cruelty, the selfishness, and
the oppression exhaust themselves in the comparatively unimportant
transactions of early life, and the spirit of kindness, generosity,
and beneficence blessing and beautifying its close. To be generous,
disinterested, and noble, seems to be necessary as the precursor of
great military success; and to be hard-hearted, selfish, and cruel is
the almost inevitable consequence of it. The exceptions to this rule,
though some of them are very splendid, are yet very few.</p>
<h3><span class="smcap">The End.</span></h3>
<hr class="large" />
<h3><span class="smcap">Footnotes:</span></h3>
<div class="footnote"><p><SPAN name="Footnote_A_1" id="Footnote_A_1"></SPAN><SPAN href="#FNanchor_A_1"><span class="label">[A]</span></SPAN> The uncle here referred to was Mandane's brother. His
name was Oyaxares. He was at this time a royal prince, the heir
apparent to the throne. He figures very conspicuously in the
subsequent portions of Xenophon's history as Astyages's successor on
the throne. Herodotus does not mention him at all, but makes Cyrus
himself the direct successor of Astyages.</p>
</div>
<div class="footnote"><p><SPAN name="Footnote_B_2" id="Footnote_B_2"></SPAN><SPAN href="#FNanchor_B_2"><span class="label">[B]</span></SPAN> From the French word <i>levée</i>, raised.</p>
</div>
<div class="footnote"><p><SPAN name="Footnote_C_3" id="Footnote_C_3"></SPAN><SPAN href="#FNanchor_C_3"><span class="label">[C]</span></SPAN> Jeremiah, xxvi., 12-15.</p>
</div>
<div class="footnote"><p><SPAN name="Footnote_D_4" id="Footnote_D_4"></SPAN><SPAN href="#FNanchor_D_4"><span class="label">[D]</span></SPAN> See the account of these transactions in the 36th chapter
of Jeremiah.</p>
</div>
<hr class="large" />
<h3><span class="smcap">Transcriber's Notes:</span></h3>
<p>1. Minor changes have been made to correct typesetters' errors, and to ensure consistent spelling and punctuation in this etext; otherwise,
every effort has been made to remain true to the original book.</p>
<p>2. The sidenotes used in this text were originally published as banners in the page headers, and have been moved to the relevant paragraph
for the reader's convenience.</p>
<p>3. Page numbers have, in several places, been changed to accommodate the placement of illustrations.</p>
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