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<h2>CHAPTER 24</h2> <h3>CAUSES OF THE WAR OF 1812</h3> The African pirates. Higginson, 237-239; Eggleston, 228-229. Tribute paying. Jefferson ends this system. Hero Tales, 103-113. 247. The North Africa Pirates.--Stretching along the northern shores of Africa from Egypt westward to the Atlantic were four states. These states were named Tunis, Tripoli, Algiers, and Morocco. Their people were Mohammedans, and were ruled over by persons called Deys or Beys, or Pachas. These rulers found it profitable and pleasant to attack and capture Christian ships. The cargoes of the captured vessels they sold at good prices, and the seamen and passengers they sold at good prices too--as slaves. The leading powers of Europe, instead of destroying these pirates, found it easier to pay them to let their ships alone. Washington and Adams also paid them to allow American ships to sail unharmed. But the pirates were never satisfied with what was paid them. Jefferson decided to put an end to this tribute paying. He sent a few ships to seize the pirates and shut up their harbors. More and more vessels were sent, until at last the Deys and Beys and Pachas thought it would be cheaper to behave themselves properly. So they agreed to release their American prisoners and not to capture any more American ships (1805). In these little wars American naval officers gained much useful experience and did many glorious deeds. Especially Decatur and Somers won renown. European fighters attack American commerce. McMaster, 224-226. 248. America, Britain, and France.--Napoleon Bonaparte was now Emperor of the French. In 1804 he made war on the British and their allies. Soon he became supreme on the land, and the British became supreme on the water. They could no longer fight one another very easily, so they determined to injure each other's trade and commerce as much as possible. The British declared continental ports closed to commerce, and Napoleon declared all British commerce to be unlawful. Of course under these circumstances British and Continental ships could not carry on trade, and American vessels rapidly took their places. The British shipowners called upon their government to put an end to this American commerce. Old laws were looked up and enforced. American vessels that disobeyed them were seized by the British. But if any American vessel obeyed these laws, Napoleon seized it as soon as it entered a French harbor. Impressment. Eggleston, 240. 249. The Impressment Controversy.--With the British the United States had still another cause of complaint. British warships stopped American vessels and took away all their seamen who looked like Englishmen. These they compelled to serve on British men-of-war. As Americans and Englishmen looked very much alike, they generally seized all the best-looking seamen. Thousands of Americans were captured in this way and forced into slavery on British men-of-war. This method of kidnaping was called impressment. The embargo, 1807. Eggleston, 241; McMaster, 226-227, 228. Failure of the embargo. Source-Book, 209-211. 250. The Embargo, 1807-1809.--Jefferson hardly knew what to do. He might declare war on both Great Britain and on France. But to do that would surely put a speedy end to all American commerce. In the old days, before the Revolutionary War, the colonists had more than once brought the British to terms by refusing to buy their goods (pp. 84, 85). Jefferson now thought that if the people of the United States should refuse to trade with the British and the French, the governments both of Great Britain and of France would be forced to treat American commerce properly. Congress therefore passed an Embargo Act. This forbade vessels to leave American ports after a certain day. If the people had been united, the embargo might have done what Jefferson expected it would do. But the people were not united. Especially in New England, the shipowners tried in every way to break the law. This led to the passing of stricter laws. Finally the New Englanders even talked of seceding from the Union. [Illustration: AN EARLY STEAM FERRYBOAT, ABOUT 1810.] Outrage on the Chesapeake, 1807. McMaster, 227. 251. The Outrage on the Chesapeake, 1807.--The British now added to the anger of the Americans by impressing seamen from the decks of an American warship. The frigate Chesapeake left the Norfolk navy yard for a cruise. At once the British vessel Leopard sailed toward her and ordered her to stop. As the Chesapeake did not stop, the Leopard fired on her. The American frigate was just setting out, and everything was in confusion on her decks. But a coal was brought from the cook's stove, and one gun was fired. Her flag was then hauled down. The British came on board and seized four seamen, who they said were deserters from the British navy. This outrage aroused tremendous excitement. Jefferson ordered all British warships out of American waters and forbade the people to supply them with provisions, water, or wood. The British offered to restore the imprisoned seamen and ordered out of American waters the admiral under whose direction the outrage had been done. But they would not give up impressment. Madison elected President, 1808.] 252. Madison elected President, 1808.--There is nothing in the Constitution to limit the number of times a man may be chosen President. Many persons would gladly have voted a third time for Jefferson. But he thought that unless some limit were set, the people might keep on reëlecting a popular and successful President term after term. This would be very dangerous to the republican form of government. So Jefferson followed Washington's example and declined a third term, Washington and Jefferson thus established a custom that has ever since been followed. The Republicans voted for James Madison, and he was elected President (1808). [Illustration: MODERN DOUBLE-DECKED FERRYBOAT.] Non-Intercourse Act, 1809. 253. The Non-Intercourse Act, 1809.--By this time the embargo had become so very unpopular that it could be maintained only at the cost of civil war. Madison suggested that the Embargo Act should be repealed, and a Non-Intercourse Act passed in its place. Congress at once did as he suggested. The Non-Intercourse Act prohibited commerce with Great Britain and with France and the countries controlled by France. It permitted commerce with the rest of the world. There were not many European countries with which America could trade under this law. Still there were a few countries, as Norway and Spain, which still maintained their independence. And goods could be sold through them to the other European countries. At all events, no sooner was the embargo removed than commerce revived. Rates of freight were very high and the profits were very large, although the French and the British captured many American vessels. The Erskine treaty. The British minister Jackson. Source-Book, 212-213 254. Two British Ministers.--Soon after Madison's inauguration a new British minister came to Washington. His name was Erskine, and he was very friendly. A treaty was speedily made on conditions which Madison thought could be granted. He suspended non-intercourse with Great Britain, and hundreds of vessels set sail for that country. But the British rulers soon put an end to this friendly feeling. They said that Erskine had no authority to make such a treaty. They refused to carry it out and recalled Erskine. The next British minister was a person named Jackson. He accused Madison of cheating Erskine and repeated the accusation. Thereupon Madison sent him back to London. As the British would not carry out the terms of Erskine's treaty, Madison was compelled to prohibit all intercourse with Great Britain. Still another policy. McMaster, 229-230. French trickery. British trickery. 255. British and French Trickery.--The scheme of non-intercourse did not seem to bring the British and the French to terms much better than the embargo had done. In 1810, therefore, Congress set to work and produced a third plan. This was to allow intercourse with both Great Britain and France. But this was coupled with the promise that if one of the two nations stopped seizing American ships and the other did not, then intercourse with the unfriendly country should be prohibited. Napoleon at once said that he would stop seizing American vessels on November 1 of that year if the British, on their part, would stop their seizures before that time. The British said that they would stop seizing when Napoleon did. Neither of them really did anything except to keep on capturing American vessels whenever they could get a chance. Indians of the Northwest. Eggleston, 242. Tecumthe. 256. Indian Troubles, 1810.--To this everlasting trouble with Great Britain and France were now added the horrors of an Indian war. It came about in this way. Settlers were pressing into Indiana Territory west of the new state of Ohio. Soon the lands which the United States had bought of the Indians would be occupied. New lands must be bought. At this time there were two able Indian leaders in the Northwest. These were Tecumthe, or Tecumseh, and his brother, who was known as "the Prophet." These chiefs set on foot a great Indian confederation. They said that no one Indian tribe should sell land to the United States without the consent of all the tribes of the Confederation. Battle of Tippecanoe, 1811. 257. Battle of Tippecanoe.--This determined attitude of the Indians seemed to the American leaders to be very dangerous. Governor William Henry Harrison of Indiana Territory gathered a small army of regular soldiers and volunteers from Ohio, Kentucky, and Indiana. He marched to the Indian settlements. The Indians attacked him at Tippecanoe. He beat them off and, attacking in his turn, routed them. Tecumthe was not at the battle. But he immediately fled to the British in Canada. The Americans had suspected that the British were stirring up the Indians to resist the United States. The reception given to Tecumthe made them feel that their suspicions were correct. [Illustration: MEDAL PRESENTED TO HENRY CLAY.] Henry Clay. John C. Calhoun. 258. The War Party in Congress.--There were abundant reasons to justify war with Great Britain, or with France, or with both of them. But there would probably have been no war with either of them had it not been for a few energetic young men in Congress. The leaders of this war party were Henry Clay and John C. Calhoun. Clay was born in Virginia, but as a boy he had gone to Kentucky. He represented the spirit of the young and growing West. He was a true patriot and felt angry at the way the British spoke of America and Americans, and at the way they acted toward the United States. He was a very popular man and won men to him by his attractive qualities and by his energy. Calhoun was a South Carolinian who had been educated in Connecticut. He was a man of the highest personal character. He had a strong, active mind, and he was fearless in debate. As with Clay so with Calhoun, they both felt the rising spirit of nationality. They thought that the United States had been patient long enough. They and their friends gained a majority in Congress and forced Madison to send a warlike message to Congress. Madison's war message, 1812. McMaster>, 231; Source-Book, 214-216. 259. Madison's Reasons for War, 1812.--In his message Madison stated the grounds for complaint against the British as follows: (1) they impressed American seamen; (2) they disturbed American commerce by stationing warships off the principal ports; they refused to permit trade between America and Europe; (4) they stirred up the western Indians to attack the settlers; (5) they were really making war on the United States while the United States was at peace with them. For these reasons Madison advised a declaration of war against Great Britain, and war was declared. <hr style="width: 35%;"> <h2>QUESTIONS AND TOPICS</h2> CHAPTER 22 §§ 228, 229.--a. Draw a map showing the states and territories in 1800. b. How and why had the center of population changed since 1791? Where is it now? c. Why did so many people live near tide water? Do the same reasons exist to-day? §§ 230-232.--a. What were the "best roads" in 1800? b. Describe the dangers and discomforts of traveling in 1800. c. What were the early steamboats like? §§ 233, 234.--a. What fact hindered the growth of cotton on a large scale in colonial times? b. How did Whitney's cotton gin change these conditions? §§ 235, 236.--a. Why had manufacturing received so little attention before the Revolution? b. How did the new government encourage manufacturing? CHAPTER 23 § 237.--a. How did Jefferson's inauguration illustrate his political ideas? b. Compare his method of opening Congress with that employed by Washington and Adams. Which method is followed to-day? §§ 238.--a. What is the Civil Service? How had Washington and Adams filled offices? Was their action wise? §§ 239.--a. Explain the Judiciary Act of 1801. b. What power has Congress over the Judiciary? (Constitution, Art. III). §§ 240.--a. What was Jefferson's policy toward expenses? How did he carry it out? What was the result of these economies? b. Was the reduction of the navy wise? What conditions make a large navy necessary? §§ 241-244.--a. When and how had Louisiana changed hands since its settlement? Why were the Spaniards poor neighbors? b. How did the United States acquire Louisiana? c. Trace on a map the boundaries of the Louisiana Purchase. Compare its value to-day with the price paid. d. What important discoveries did Lewis and Clark make? §§ 245, 246.--a. Give instances which illustrate the disadvantages of the old way of electing the President and Vice-President. b. Explain carefully the changes made by the Twelfth Amendment, and show how a President may be elected by a minority of the voters. CHAPTER 24 §§ 247.--a. Describe the doings of the African pirates. Why had Washington and Adams paid them? b. Describe Jefferson's action and state the results. §§ 248, 249.--a. Compare the power of France and Great Britain at this time. b. How did they try to injure one another? How did they treat American ships? c. Explain the impressment of sailors by the British. §§ 250, 251.--a. Describe the difficulties of Jefferson's position. b. Give instances of refusal to buy British goods and the results. c. Explain the Embargo Act. Why was it a failure? d. Describe the outrage on the Chesapeake. Was the offer of the British government enough? What more should have been promised? §§ 252, 253.--a. What were Jefferson's objections to a third term? What custom was established by these early Presidents? b. Where have we found Madison prominent before? c. Explain the difference between the Embargo Act and the Non-Intercourse Act. §§ 254, 255.--a. Describe the attempt to renew friendly intercourse with Great Britain. b. What do you think of Napoleon's treatment of the United States? §§ 256.--a. What caused the trouble with the Indians? b. Describe Harrison's action. How were the British connected with this Indian trouble? §§ 257-259.--a. How did all these affairs affect the relations between the United States and Great Britain? b. Explain the attitude of Clay and Calhoun. c. What is meant by the "rising spirit of nationality"? d. Illustrate, by facts already studied, the reasons given in Madison's message. GENERAL QUESTIONS a. How has machinery influenced the history of the United States? b. Draw a map showing the extent of the United States in 1802 and 1804. c. What were the four most important things in Jefferson's administrations? Why do you select these? TOPICS FOR SPECIAL WORK a. Robert Fulton or Eli Whitney. b. Exploration of the Northwest. c. War with the African pirates. d. Life and manners in 1800. SUGGESTIONS The purchase of Louisiana and the early development of the West are leading points in this period. With the latter must be coupled the important inventions which made such development possible. Commercial questions should receive adequate attention and should be illustrated by present conditions. Jefferson's attitude toward both the Louisiana Purchase and the enforcement of the Embargo Act is an illustration of the effect which power and responsibility have on those placed at the head of the government. This can also be illustrated by events in our own time. <hr style="width: 35%;"> <h2>IX</h2> <h3>WAR AND PEACE, 1812-1829</h3> <h4>Books for Study and Reading</h4> References.--Higginson's Larger History, 365-442; Scribner's Popular History, IV; Lossing's Field-Book of the War of 1812; Coffin's Building the Nation, 149-231. Home Readings.--Barnes's Yankee Ships; Roosevelt's Naval War of 1812; Seawell's Midshipman Paulding; Holmes's Old Ironsides; Goodwin's Dolly Madison. <hr style="width: 35%;"> <h2>CHAPTER 25</h2> <h3>THE SECOND WAR OF INDEPENDENCE, 1812 1815</h3> American plan of campaign, 1812. Objections to it. 260. Plan of Campaign, 1812.--The American plan of campaign was that General Hull should invade Canada from Detroit. He could then march eastward, north of Lake Erie, and meet another army which was to cross the Niagara River. These two armies were to take up the eastward march and join a third army from New York. The three armies then would capture Montreal and Quebec and generally all Canada. It was a splendid plan. But there were three things in the way of carrying it out: (i) there was no trained American army; (2) there were no supplies for an army when gathered and trained; and (3) there was a small, well-trained and well-supplied army in Canada. [Illustration: DETROIT, ABOUT 1815.] Hull's march to Detroit. His misfortunes. He surrenders Detroit, 1812. 261. Hull's Surrender of Detroit, 1812.--In those days Detroit was separated from the settled parts of Ohio by two hundred miles of wilderness. To get his men and supplies to Detroit, Hull had first of all to cut a road through the forest. The British learned of the actual declaration of war before Hull knew of it. They dashed down on his scattered detachments and seized his provisions. Hull sent out expedition after expedition to gather supplies and bring in the scattered settlers. Tecumthe and the other Indian allies of the British captured one expedition after another. The British advanced on Detroit, and Hull surrendered. By this disaster the British got control of the upper lakes. They even invaded Ohio. [Illustration: PERRY'S BATTLE FLAG.] Battle of Lake Erie 1813. McMaster, 234-235. Battle of the Thames, 1813. 262. Perry's Victory on Lake Erie, 1813.--But the British triumph did not last long. In the winter of 1812-13 Captain Oliver Hazard Perry built a fleet of warships on Lake Erie. They were built of green timber cut for the purpose. They were poor vessels, but were as good as the British vessels. In September, 1813, Perry sailed in search of the British ships. Coming up with them, he hoisted at his masthead a large blue flag with Lawrence's immortal words, "Don't give up the ship" (p. 212), worked upon it. The battle was fiercely fought. Soon Perry's flagship, the Lawrence, was disabled and only nine of her crew were uninjured. Rowing to another ship, Perry continued the fight. In fifteen minutes more all the British ships surrendered. The control of Lake Erie was now in American hands. The British retreated from the southern side of the lake. General Harrison occupied Detroit. He then crossed into Canada and defeated a British army on the banks of the river Thames (October, 1813). [Illustration: THE "CONSTITUTION." From an early painting of the escape of the Constitution from the British fleet. The men in the boat are preparing to carry out a small anchor.] The Constitution. Chased by a British fleet, 1812. She escapes. 263. The Frigate Constitution.--One of the first vessels to get to sea was the Constitution, commanded by Isaac Hull. She sailed from Chesapeake Bay for New York, where she was to serve as a guard-ship. On the way she fell in with a British squadron. The Constitution sailed on with the whole British fleet in pursuit. Soon the wind began to die away. The Constitution's sails were soaked with water to make them hold the wind better. Then the wind gave out altogether, Captain Hull lowered his boats and the men began to tow the ship. But the British lowered their boats also. They set a great many boats to towing their fastest ship, and she began to gain on the Constitution. Then Captain Hull found that he was sailing over shoal water, although out of sight of land, so he sent a small anchor ahead in a boat. The anchor was dropped and men on the ship pulled in the anchor line. This was done again and again. The Constitution now began to gain on the British fleet. Then a sudden squall burst on the ships. Captain Hull saw it coming and made every preparation to take advantage of it. When the rain cleared away, the Constitution was beyond fear of pursuit. But she could not go to New York, so Captain Hull took her to Boston. The government at once ordered him to stay where he was; but, before the orders reached Boston, the Constitution was far away. Constitution and Guerrière, 1812. Reasons for the victory. 264. Constitution and Guerrière, 1812.--For some time Hull cruised about in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. One day he sighted a British frigate--the Guerrière--one of the ships that had chased the Constitution. But now that Hull found her alone, he steered straight for her. In thirty minutes from the firing of the first gun the Guerrière was a ruinous wreck. All of her masts and spars were shot away and most of her crew were killed or wounded. The Constitution was only slightly injured, and was soon ready to fight another British frigate, had there been one to fight. Indeed, the surgeons of the Constitution went on board of the Guerrière to help dress the wounds of the British seamen. The Guerrière was a little smaller than the Constitution and had smaller guns. But the real reason for this great victory was that the American ship and the American guns were very much better handled than were the British ship and the British guns. Wasp and the Frolic. Effect of these victories. 265. The Wasp and the Frolic, 1812.--At almost the same time the American ship Wasp captured the British brig Frolic. The Wasp had three masts, and the Frolic had only two masts. But the two vessels were really of about the same size, as the American ship was only five feet longer than her enemy, and had the lighter guns. In a few minutes after the beginning of the fight the Frolic was a shattered hulk, with only one sound man on her deck. Soon after the conflict a British battleship came up and captured both the Wasp and her prize. The effect of these victories of the Constitution and the Wasp was tremendous. Before the war British naval officers had called the Constitution "a bundle of sticks." Now it was thought to be no longer safe for British frigates to sail the seas alone. They must go in pairs to protect each other from "Old Ironsides." Before long the Constitution, now commanded by Captain Bainbridge, had captured the British frigate Java, and the frigate United States, Captain Decatur, had taken the British ship Macedonian. On the other hand, the Chesapeake was captured by the Shannon. This victory gave great satisfaction to the British. But Captain Lawrence's last words, "Don't give up the ship," have always been a glorious inspiration to American sailors. [Illustration] Plan of campaign, 1814. Battle of Lundy's Lane, 1814. 266. Brown's Invasion of Canada, 1814.--In the first two years of the war the American armies in New York had done nothing. But abler men were now in command. Of these, General Jacob Brown, General Macomb, Colonel Winfield Scott, and Colonel Ripley deserve to be remembered. The American plan of campaign was that Brown, with Scott and Ripley, should cross the Niagara River and invade Canada. General Macomb, with a naval force under McDonough, was to hold the line of Lake Champlain. The British plan was to invade New York by way of Lake Champlain. Brown crossed the Niagara River and fought two brilliant battles at Chippewa and Lundy's Lane. The latter battle was especially glorious because the Americans captured British guns and held them against repeated attacks by British veterans. In the end, however, Brown was obliged to retire. Invasion of New York. Battle of Plattsburg, 1814. 267. McDonough's Victory at Plattsburg, 1814.--General Prevost, with a fine army of veterans, marched southward from Canada, while a fleet sailed up Lake Champlain. At Plattsburg, on the western side of the lake, was General Macomb with a force of American soldiers. Anchored before the town was McDonough's fleet. Prevost attacked Macomb's army and was driven back. The British fleet attacked McDonough's vessels and was destroyed. That put an end to Prevost's invasion. He retreated back to Canada as fast as he could go. [Illustration: FORT McHENRY.] Burning of Washington, 1814. "The Star-Spangled Banner." 268. The British in the Chesapeake, 1814.--Besides their operations on the Canadian frontier, the British tried to capture New Orleans and the cities on Chesapeake Bay. The British landed below Washington. They marched to the capital. They entered Washington. They burned the Capitol, the White House, and several other public buildings. They then hurried away, leaving their wounded behind them. Later on the British attacked Baltimore and were beaten off with great loss. It was at this time that Francis Scott Key wrote "The Star-Spangled Banner." He was detained on board one of the British warships during the fight. Eagerly he watched through the smoke for a glimpse of the flag over Fort McHenry at the harbor's mouth. In the morning the flag was still there. This defeat closed the British operations on the Chesapeake. [Illustration: FLAG OF FORT McHENRY. Fifteen stars and fifteen stripes--one of each for each state.] Jackson's Creek campaign, 1814. 269. The Creek War.--The Creek Indians lived in Alabama. They saw with dismay the spreading settlements of the whites. The Americans were now at war. It would be a good chance to destroy them. So the Creeks fell upon the whites and murdered about four hundred. General Andrew Jackson of Tennessee commanded the American army in the Southwest. As soon as he knew that the Creeks were attacking the settlers, he gathered soldiers and followed the Indians to their stronghold. He stormed their fort and killed most of the garrison. [Illustration: BATTLE OF NEW ORLEANS. From a sketch by one of Jackson's staff.] Battle of New Orleans, 1815. Hero Tales, 139-147. 270. Jackson's Defense of New Orleans, 1814-15.--Jackson had scarcely finished this work when he learned of the coming of a great British expedition to the mouth of the Mississippi River. He at once hastened to the defense of New Orleans. Below the city the country greatly favored the defender. For there was very little solid ground except along the river's bank. Picking out an especially narrow place, Jackson built a breastwork of cotton bales and rubbish. In front of the breastwork he dug a deep ditch. The British rushed to the attack. Most of their generals were killed or wounded, and the slaughter was terrible. Later, they made another attack and were again beaten off. Naval combats, 1814. 271. The War on the Sea, 1814.--It was only in the first year or so of the war that there was much fighting between American and British warships. After that the American ships could not get to sea, for the British stationed whole fleets off the entrances to the principal harbors. But a few American vessels ran the blockade and did good service. For instance, Captain Charles Stewart in the Constitution captured two British ships at one time. But most of the warships that got to sea were captured sooner or later. The privateers. Hero Tales, 129-136. 272. The Privateers.--No British fleets could keep the privateers from leaving port. They swarmed upon the ocean and captured hundreds of British merchantmen, some of them within sight of the shores of Great Britain. In all, they captured more than twenty-five hundred British ships. They even fought the smaller warships of the enemy. Treaty of peace, 1814. 273. Treaty of Ghent, 1814.--The war had hardly begun before commissioners to treat for peace were appointed by both the United States and Great Britain. But they did nothing until the failure of the 1814 campaign showed the British government that there was no hope of conquering any portion of the United States. Then the British were ready enough to make peace, and a treaty was signed at Ghent in December, 1814. This was two weeks before the British disaster at New Orleans occurred, and months before the news of it reached Europe. None of the things about which the war was fought were even mentioned in the treaty. But this did not really make much difference. For the British had repealed their orders as to American ships before the news of the declaration of war reached London. As for impressment, the guns of the Constitution had put an end to that. [Illustration: THE OLD STATE HOUSE. Where the Hartford Convention met.] New England Federalists. Hartford Convention, 1814. 274. The Hartford Convention, 1814.--While the New commissioners were talking over the treaty of peace, other debaters were discussing the war, at Hartford, Connecticut. These were leading New England Federalists. They thought that the government at Washington had done many things that the Constitution of the United States did not permit it to do. They drew up a set of resolutions. Some of these read like those other resolutions drawn up by Jefferson and Madison in 1798 (p. 175). The Hartford debaters also thought that the national government had not done enough to protect the coasts of New England from British attacks. They proposed, therefore, that the taxes collected by the national government in New England should be handed over to the New England states to use for their defense. Commissioners were actually at Washington to propose this division of the national revenue when news came of Jackson's victory at New Orleans and of the signing of the Treaty of Ghent. The commissioners hastened home and the Republican party regained its popularity with the voters. [Illustration: A REPUBLICAN SQUIB ON THE HARTFORD CONVENTION.] Gains of the war. The American nation. 275. Gains of the War.--The United States gained no territory after all this fighting on sea and land. It did not even gain the abolition of impressment in so many words. But what was of far greater importance, the American people began to think of itself as a nation. Americans no longer looked to France or to England as models to be followed. They became Americans. The getting of this feeling of independence and of nationality was a very great step forward. It is right, therefore, to speak of this war as the Second War of Independence. [Illustration: JAMES MONROE.] <hr style="width: 35%;"> <div style="break-after:column;"></div>

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