<h2><SPAN name="CHAPTER_XXIV" id="CHAPTER_XXIV"></SPAN>CHAPTER XXIV.</h2>
<h3>NIAGARA FALLS POWER—APPLIANCES.</h3>
<p>In the last chapter I described some of the
appliances used in connection with the power-house.
There are many things that are commonplace
as electrical appliances when used
with currents of low voltage and small quantity,
that become extremely interesting when
constructed for the purpose of handling such
currents as are developed by the dynamos
used at Niagara. For instance, it is a very
commonplace and simple thing to break and
close a circuit carrying such a current as is
used for ordinary telegraphic purposes, but
it requires quite a complicated and scientifically
constructed device to handle currents
of large volume and great pressure. If such a
current as is generated by a dynamo giving
out 5000 horse-power under a pressure of 2200
volts should be broken at a single point in a
conductor, there would be a flash and a report,
attended with such a degree of heat and such
power for disintegration that it would destroy
the instrument.</p>
<p>The circuit-breakers used at Niagara are<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_200" id="Page_200"></SPAN></span>
constructed with a very large number of contacts
made of metal sleeves, or tubes, say one
inch in diameter, so constructed that one will
slide within the other; the sleeves being slotted
so as to give them a little spring that secures
a firm contact. These are all connected together
electrically, on each half of the switch,
as one conductor, so that when the switch is
closed the current is divided into as many
parts as there are points of contact in the
switch. Suppose there are 100 of these contact-points,
a one-hundredth part of the current
would be flowing through each one of
them. If, now, these points are so arranged
that they can be all simultaneously separated,
the spark that will occur at each break will be
very small as compared with what it would be
if the whole current were flowing through a
single point, and it would be so small that
there would be no danger attending the opening
of the switch. These switches are carefully
guarded, being boxed in and under the
control of a single individual.</p>
<p>There is another apparatus that is a necessary
part of every manufacturing or other
kind of plant that uses electricity from this
power-house, and this is called the transformer.
Many of you are familiar with the box-shaped
apparatus that is used in connection with
electric lighting when the alternating current
is used. Where simply heating effects are re<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_201" id="Page_201"></SPAN></span>quired,
such as in electric lighting, for instance,
the alternating current can be used to
greater advantage than the direct current
when it has to be carried to some distance,
owing to the fact that it may be a current of
high voltage. A greater amount can be carried
through a small conductor; thus greatly
reducing the cost of an electrical plant that
distributes power to a distance. A transformer
is an apparatus that changes the current from
one voltage to another.</p>
<p>In the ordinary electric-light plant, such as
is used in a small town or village, the current
that is sent out from the power-station has
a pressure of from 1000 to 1500 volts, according
to the distance to which it is sent. It
would not do, however, for the current to enter
a dwelling at this high pressure, because it is
dangerous to handle, and the liability to fires
originating from the current would be greatly
increased. At some point, therefore, outside
of the building, and not a great distance from
it, a transformer is inserted which changes
the voltage, say, from 1000 down to 50 or 100,
according to the kind of lamps used. Some
lamps are constructed to be used with a current
of fifty volts and others for 100 or more.
The lamp must always be adapted to the current
or the current to the lamp, as you choose.
The human body may be placed in a circuit
where such low voltage is used without dan<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_202" id="Page_202"></SPAN></span>ger,
but it would be exceedingly dangerous to
be put in contact with a pressure of 1000 or
more volts, such as is used for lighting purposes.</p>
<p>In principle the transformer is nothing
more or less than an induction-coil on a very
large scale. The ordinary induction-coil, such
as is used for medical purposes, is ordinarily
constructed by winding a coarse wire around
an iron core. This core is usually made of a
bundle of soft iron wires, because the wires
more readily magnetize and demagnetize than
a solid iron core would. Around this coil of
coarse wire, which we call the primary coil, is
wound a secondary coil of finer wire. If now
a battery is connected with the primary coil,
which is made of the coarse wire, and the circuit
is interrupted by some sort of mechanical
circuit-breaker, each time the primary or
battery circuit is opened there will be a momentary
impulse in the secondary circuit of a
much higher voltage; and at the moment the
primary circuit is closed there will be another
impulse in this secondary circuit in the opposite
direction. The latter impulse is called
the initial and the former the terminal impulse.
A current created in this manner is
called an <i>induced</i> current. The initial current
is not so strong as the terminal in this particular
arrangement.</p>
<p>If we should take hold of the two wires con<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_203" id="Page_203"></SPAN></span>nected
with the two poles of the battery and
bring them together so as to close the circuit,
and then separate them so as to break it we
should scarcely feel any sensation—if there
were only one or two cells, such as are ordinarily
used with such coils. But if we connect
these wires to the coils of the induction
apparatus and then take hold of the two ends
of the secondary coil and break and close the
primary circuit we should feel a painful shock
at each break and close, although the actual
amount of current flowing through the secondary
wire is not as great as that which flows
through the primary; but the voltage (or electromotive
force) is higher, and thus is able
to drive what current there is through a conductor
of higher resistance, such as the human
body. For this reason there is more current
forced through the body, which is a poor conductor,
than can be by a direct battery current
which has a lower voltage. If now we should
take a battery of a number of cells, so as to
get a voltage equal to that given off by the
secondary coil, and connect it with the fine-wire
coil instead of the coarse-wire coil—thus
making what was before the secondary coil the
primary—by breaking and closing the battery
circuit as before we shall get a secondary or
induced current in the coarse-wire coil, but it
will be a current of low voltage, and will not<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_204" id="Page_204"></SPAN></span>
produce the painful sensation that the secondary
coil did.</p>
<p>We have now described the principle of a
transformer as it is worked out in an ordinary
induction-coil. As has been stated, at
Niagara Falls the current comes from the
dynamos with an electromotive force or pressure
of 2200 volts. For some purposes this
voltage is not high enough, and for other purposes
it is too high; therefore it has to be
transformed before it is used! For some purposes
this transformation takes place in the
power-house, and for others it takes place at
the establishment where it is used. For instance,
take the current that is sent to Buffalo,
a distance of from twenty to thirty miles. The
current first runs to a transformer connected
with the power-house, where it is "stepped-up"
(to use the parlance of the craft) from a
voltage of 2200 to 10,000. It is carried to
Buffalo through wire conductors that are
strung on poles, and is there "stepped-down"
again through another transformer to the voltage
required for use at that place. The object
of raising the voltage from 2200 to 10,000 in
this case is to save money in the construction
of the line of conductors between the two
points. If the voltage were left at 2200—the
conductors remaining the same as they are
now—the loss in transmission would be very
great, owing to the resistance which these<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_205" id="Page_205"></SPAN></span>
wires would offer to a current of such comparatively
low voltage as 2200. To overcome
this difficulty—if the voltage is not increased—it
would be necessary to use conductors that
are very much larger in cross-section (thicker)
than the present ones are. And as these conductors
are made of copper the expense would
be too great to admit of any profit to the company.</p>
<p>If we go back to an illustration we used in
one of the early chapters on electricity we can
better explain what takes place by increasing
the voltage. If we have a column of water
kept at a level say of ten feet above a hole
where it discharges, that is one inch in diameter,
a certain definite amount of water will
discharge there each minute. If now we substitute
for the hole that is one inch in diameter
one that is only one-half inch in diameter
a very much smaller amount of water will discharge
each minute, if the head is kept at the
same point—namely, ten feet. But if now we
raise the column of water we shall in time
reach a height which will produce a pressure
that will cause as much water to discharge
per minute through the one-half-inch hole as
before discharged through the one-inch hole
with only the pressure of a ten-foot column.
This is exactly what takes place when the voltage
is "stepped-up," which is equivalent to an
increase of pressure.<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_206" id="Page_206"></SPAN></span></p>
<p>It will be seen from the foregoing that these
transformers have to be made with reference
to the use the current is to be put to. In general
shape they are alike in appearance, the
difference being chiefly in the relation the primary
sustains to the secondary coils. There
is another kind of transformer that is used
when it is necessary to have the current always
running in the same direction. This transformer,
as heretofore explained, does not
change the voltage of the current, but simply
transforms what was an alternating into a direct
current. By alternating current we mean
one that is made up of impulses of alternating
polarity—first a positive and then a negative.
The direct current is one whose impulses
are all of one polarity. The direct current is
required for all purposes where electrolysis
(chemical decomposition by electricity, as of
silver for silver-plating, etc.) is a part of the
process. The alternating current may be used
without transformation in all processes where
heat is the chief factor. For motive power
either current may be used, only the electromotors
have to be constructed with reference
to the kind of current that is used.</p>
<p>The rotary transformer, which may be
driven by any power, consists of a wheel carrying
a rotating commutator so arranged with
reference to brushes that deliver the current
to the commutator and carry it away from<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_207" id="Page_207"></SPAN></span>
the same, that the brushes leading out from the
transformer will always have impulses of the
same polarity delivered to them. In the parlance
of the craft, the transformers that are
used to change the voltage from high to low,
or vice versa, are called "static transformers,"
simply because they are stationary, we suppose.
The others are called rotary, or moving transformers,
to distinguish them from the other
forms. The operation of the latter is purely
mechanical, while the former is electrical. In
some instances where the static transformers
are very large they develop a great amount of
heat, so much that it is necessary to devise
means for dissipating it as fast as created.
In some instances this is done by air-currents
forced through them, but in others, where they
are very large, oil is kept circulating through
the transformer from a tank that is elevated
above it, the oil being pumped back by a rotary
pump into the tank where it is cooled
by a coil of pipe located in the oil, through
which cold water is continually circulating.
By this means cold oil is constantly flowing
down through the transformer, where it absorbs
the heat, which in turn is pumped back
into the tank, where it is cooled.</p>
<p>Having now traced the energy from the
water-wheel through the various transformations
and having described in a very general
way the apparatus both for generating elec<span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_208" id="Page_208"></SPAN></span>tricity
and for transforming it to the right
voltage necessary for the various uses to which
it is put, we will proceed in our next chapter
to follow it out to the points where it is delivered,
and trace it through its processes, and
the part it plays in creating the products of
these various commercial establishments.</p>
<hr style="width: 65%;" />
<p><span class="pagenum"><SPAN name="Page_209" id="Page_209"></SPAN></span></p>
<div style="break-after:column;"></div><br />